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Ultranationalism

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"Ultranationalist" redirects here. For the fictional "Ultranationalists" faction from the Call of Duty video game series, see Call of Duty § Modern Warfare series.

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Ultranationalism or extreme nationalism is an extreme form of nationalism in which a country asserts or maintains detrimental hegemony, supremacy, or other forms of control over other nations (usually through violent coercion) to pursue its specific interests.[1][2][3] Ultranationalist entities have been associated with the engagement of political violence even during peacetime.[4]

In ideological terms, scholars such as the British political theorist Roger Griffin have found that ultranationalism arises from seeing modern nation-states as living organisms which are directly akin to physical people because they can decay, grow, and die, and additionally, they can experience rebirth. In stark, mythological ways, political campaigners have divided societies into those which are perceived as being degenerately inferior and those which are perceived as having great cultural destinies. Ultranationalism has been an aspect of fascism, with historic governments such as the regimes of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany building on ultranationalist foundations by using specific plans for supposed widespread national renewal.[3]

Background concepts and broader context

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Monarchist ultranationalists within the Black Hundreds movement marched in Odesa, then inside of Russia, after the October Manifesto came out in 1905.
Italian far-right figure Benito Mussolini (left) greatly influenced Oswald Mosley (right) and contributed to the evolution of his ultranationalist faction called the British Union of Fascists, with them appearing together on this occasion in Italy itself.

British political theorist Roger Griffin has stated that ultranationalism is essentially founded on xenophobia in a way that finds supposed legitimacy "through deeply mythicized narratives of past cultural or political periods of historical greatness or of old scores to settle against alleged enemies". It can also draw on "vulgarized forms" of different aspects of the natural sciences such as anthropology and genetics, eugenics specifically playing a role, in order "to rationalize ideas of national superiority and destiny, of degeneracy and subhumanness" in Griffin's opinion. Ultranationalists view the modern nation-state as, according to Griffin, a living organism directly akin to a physical person such that it can decay, grow, die, and additionally experience rebirth. He has highlighted Nazi Germany as a regime which was founded on ultranationalism.[3]

Ultranationalist activism can adopt varying attitudes towards historical traditions within the populace. For instance, the British Union of Fascists inside the United Kingdom adopted a secularist-minded platform centered on perceived technological progress. In contrast, the Iron Guard inside Romania utilized a hardline form of mysticism-driven religion to encourage determination among the nation's ultranationalists. Nonetheless, obsessive views on ethnicity and other divisions as well as connecting politics to motifs of sacrifice generally constitute the psychological framework behind these movements.[3]

According to American scholar Janusz Bugajski, summing up the doctrine in practical terms, "in its most extreme or developed forms, ultra-nationalism resembles fascism, marked by a xenophobic disdain of other nations, support for authoritarian political arrangements verging on totalitarianism, and a mythical emphasis on the 'organic unity' between a charismatic leader, an organizationally amorphous movement-type party, and the nation". Bugajski believes that civic nationalism and the related concept of patriotism both can contain significantly positive elements, contributing to the common social good at times such as during national calamities. These doctrines stand in contrast, in his opinion, to the extreme approach of certain ideologies with more irrational actions.[5]

Historical movements and analysis

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In 1930s and 1940s era ultranationalist Japan, the state routinely distributed political propaganda preaching the virtues of domination and expansion, with this photograph showing efforts in Manchukuo.

American historian Walter Skya has written in Japan's Holy War: The Ideology of Radical Shinto Ultranationalism that ultranationalism in Japan drew upon traditional Shinto spiritual beliefs and militaristic attitudes regarding the nation's racial identity. By the early twentieth century, fanaticism arising from this combination of ethnic nationalism and religious nationalism caused opposition to democratic governance and support for Japanese territorial expansion. Skya particularly noted in his work the connection between ultranationalism and political violence by citing how, between 1921 and 1936, three serving and two former Prime Ministers of Japan were assassinated. The totalitarian Japanese government of the 1930s and 1940s did not just rely on encouragement by the country's military. It additionally received widespread popular support.[4]

The Cambodian historian Sambo Manara has found that the belief system sets forth a vision of supremacism in terms of international relations whereby xenophobia or hatred of foreigners to the point of extremism leads to policies of social separation and segregation. He has argued that the Cambodian genocide is a specific example of this ideology when it is applied in practice. "Obviously, it was ultranationalism, combined with the notion of class struggle in communism and a group of politicians, which lead to the establishment of Democratic Kampuchea, a ruthless regime which claimed approximately three million lives", he has remarked, with militant leaders finally deciding to "cut all diplomatic and economic ties with almost all countries" due to a "narrow-minded doctrine without taking into account all the losses they would face". In Manara's opinion, "this effectively destroyed the nation."[6]

The absolute dictatorship of the Romanian leader Nicolae Ceausescu has also been described as an example of communism taking an ultranationalist approach by Haaretz. The Israeli publication cited the antisemitism of the dictator in terms of actions such as his historical denialism of the Holocaust. Ceausescu also made efforts to purge Romanians who had Jewish backgrounds from positions of political authority.[7]

Haaretz has also labeled the Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orban an ultranationalist, due to his views on autocratic rule and racial identity, particularly, Orban's public condemnation of "race-mixing".[7] He has also been called an ultranationalist by NPR, an American news agency, citing his opposition to democratic liberalism.[8]

In late 2015, the Israeli political journalist Gideon Levy wrote that the Israeli–Palestinian conflict has led to the decay of the civil society within Israel, with an ultranationalist movement that "bases its power on incitement to hatred" using "folkloric religion" gaining ground over decades so that:

"They were the only ones willing to fight for a collective goal. They did not rule out any means. They extorted and exploited the weaknesses of government, the guilt feelings and confusion of the secular camp, and they won. They did so systematically and smartly: First they established the foundation of their existence, the settlement enterprise. After they achieved their goal– the killing off of any diplomatic agreement and destruction of the two-state solution– they were free to turn to their next target: taking control of the public debate in Israel on the road to changing its power structure, character and substance."[9]

The Iron Guard, a Romanian ultranationalist movement, centered its mass appeal on communal religious mysticism, with its militant leader Corneliu Zelea Codreanu being photographed amidst his followers in Bucharest during a 1937 event.

Russian irredentism, in which a militant imperial state that stretches across both Asia and Europe without regard for current international borders is proposed, has been described as ultranationalism by the U.S. publication the Los Angeles Times, with the aggressive actions of Russian President Vladimir Putin being credited as an evolution of political arguments which were made by multiple figures in the past. Examples include Nikolai Berdyaev, Aleksandr Dugin (the author of 1997's The Foundations of Geopolitics: The Geopolitical Future of Russia), Lev Gumilyov, and Ivan Ilyin. The newspaper highlighted the justifications which were given in support of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, quoting Putin's declaration that he must militarily combat an "empire of lies" which was created by the U.S. in order to justify its desire to suffocate Russia.[10]

In a 2021 story, the business-centered publication Bloomberg News stated that the rise of ultranationalist viewpoints in China, particularly in terms of those who advocate extremism on social media, presents a direct challenge to the current government of the nation, with CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping facing opposition to his attempts to set forth climate change based economic reforms in relation to greenhouse gases. Chinese political activists have asserted, according to the publication, a conspiracy theory that said that the reforms represent some kind of capitulation to foreign interests at the expense of individual Chinese people. Environmentalist policies have come into being in a complex fashion inside China, facing complicated opinions among many.[11]

Under the rule of Mohammed bin Salman, who formally serves as a Crown Prince, Saudi Arabia has been described by multiple analysts as embracing ultranationalism in a shift away from the government's previous reliance on Islamist political arguments.[12][13][14] For instance, the news agency France 24 stated in a 2019 report that while "promoting ultra-nationalism" the Crown Prince "has introduced glitzy concerts, magic shows and sporting extravaganzas with thumping after parties."[14] A 2019 article by the Financial Times likewise described the ideological shift as "a wave" that the leader had "swept across the kingdom".[13]

Ultranationalist political parties

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Currently represented in national governments or legislatures

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The following political parties have been characterised as ultranationalist.

The following political parties have been described as having ultranationalist factions.

Represented parties with former ultranationalist tendencies or factions

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The following political parties historically had ultranationalist tendencies.

The following political parties have historically been described as having ultranationalist factions.

Formerly represented in national governments or legislatures

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Ultranationalist organizations

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Ultranationalist terrorism

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Main article: Nationalist terrorism
A group of bicycle infantry militants that fought in the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) travel just north of Kilinochchi inside of Sri Lanka in June 2004.

Arising out of strident Sri Lankan Tamil nationalism, with differing ethnic and religious groups placed at odds, the militant faction known as the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) orchestrated a decades long campaign of terrorism in the country of Sri Lanka, which is inside of the Indian Ocean and has been influenced by broader socio-political trends. Both ultranationalism as well as revolutionary ideologies aligned against capitalist policies influencing Sri Lankan life motivated the organization as it undertook a series of violent actions against both the national government and the supporters of the state. These attacks have collectively caused a large number of civilian deaths. For example, the Anuradhapura massacre committed by the LTTE on May 14, 1985 resulted in the killing of over one-hundred individuals inside of a holy city associated with local Buddhist worshippers. The militants deliberately targeted civilians socializing outdoors, such as by executing an elderly florist serving religious travelers.[257][258][259]

In the context of the LTTE's militant campaign, the academic publication Journal of Hate Studies found in a 2006 analysis that "ultranationalism subordinates all other claims for loyalty and allegiance" given that "[l]oyalty to the nation transcends loyalty to the family." Thus, "this notion explains the commitment of Tamil Tiger nationalists to [even] engage in suicide missions", since the journal stated that "[u]ltranationalist loyalty demands the willingness to sacrifice the self." In conclusion, the publication reported that an "extremist nationalist claim not only is understood as supreme, but [it] also is presented as urgent" and then demands political activists "must engage in preventive measures, such as ethnic cleansing or deportation".[259]

Golden Dawn activists rally in Athens during a March 2015 event.

The assassination of Pavlos Fyssas in September 2013, a hip-hop musician with left-wing views, from stabbing wounds to the heart and ribs that occurred after his surrounding by multiple dozen Golden Dawn militants triggered widespread outrage at the Greek political organization. The ultranationalist attack occurred in an Athens suburb and resulted in a police crackdown with several arrests. The then Ministry of Public Order and Citizen Protection, Nikos Dendias, remarked that the "abominable murder" done "by an attacker sympathizing with Golden Dawn" publicly "illustrates, in the clearest way, the intentions of neo-Nazism".[260][261][262]

The organization held, at the time, 18 of the 300 seats in the Hellenic Parliament. Characterized as an extremist political party directly adapting the beliefs of Adolf Hitler, support for its ultranationalism increased in the context of the debate over spiking immigration to Greece. However, the Greek legal system ultimately investigated the assassination and other acts of violence with the outcome of an October 2020 verdict by the Athens Court of Appeals wiping out the party's leadership through prison sentences. Looking back, the British publication The Guardian reported in 2021, "Golden Dawn hit squads sowed terror on the streets, targeting immigrants, left[-]wing trade unionists[,] and other perceived opponents before a party operative ultimately confessed to the killing of Fyssas."[260][261][262]

Portrayals of ultranationalism in fiction

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The action film Air Force One features a terrorist mastermind named Egor Korshunov, played by actor Gary Oldman, who kidnaps a set of hostages including the U.S. President by hijacking the leader's plane. Korshunov seeks revenge due to the arrest of Kazakh dictator Ivan Radek, played by actor Jürgen Prochnow, and the militant became an ultranationalist radical after having formerly served as a Soviet soldier. In February 2022, the U.S. armed forces related website Military.com published a story labeling the character as one of the best "Russian Movie Villains" in American cinematic history.[263] As well, writer Todd McCarthy of Variety lauded the nature of Oldman's "fanatical" character, McCarthy stating that "in his second malevolent lead of the summer, after The Fifth Element, [he] registers strongly as a veteran of the Afghan campaign pushed to desperate lengths to newly ennoble his country."[264]

The Israeli movie Incitement portrayals a fictionalized account of ultranationalist activist and murderer Yigal Amir. The production details his personal life prior to his assassination of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin. Film critic Nell Minow stated that the killer, played by actor Yehuda Nahari, projects a superficial charm and skill at persuasion while at the same time failing to generate audience sympathy due to his true nature still coming out. Amir seeing himself in a callous, "instrumentalist" way as a living weapon up to and including Rabin's assassination feeds into, in Minow's opinion, the movie's "chillingly" thriller-type quality.[265] Writer Carla Hay of CultureMixOnline.com also found Nahari's performance to be a compelling portrayal of a sociopath in film, with much left to audience interpretations.[266]

The video game Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare has gained notice for its depiction of a civil war inside Russia between the country's government and an ultranationalist faction, with the entertainment production being released in 2007. Its sequels, Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 (2009) and Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 (2011), were set in the aftermath of an ultranationalist coup d'état in Russia and a subsequent war involving the American military. Militant leader Vladimir Makarov, a character in multiple games, notably declares at one point, "Russia will take all of Europe, even if it must stand upon a pile of ashes."[267][268]

See also

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References

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  2. ^ Ultranationalism. Collins English Dictionary. Retrieved 19 June 2022.
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  94. ^ "Resultados elecciones en Argentina 2023: quién ha ganado el escrutinio y última hora de Sergio Massa y Javier Milei". El Confidencial. 23 October 2023. Milei, representante de La Libertad Avanza y conocido por su enfoque ultranacionalista
  95. ^ Cupples, Julie (2022). Development and Decolonization in Latin America. Taylor & Francis. election of right-wing ultranationalist populist, Jair Bolsonaro
  96. ^ "Class struggle and extreme nationalism have become CCP's ideological weapons". ThinkChina. 10 August 2022.
  97. ^ "The Great Translation Movement Shines a Spotlight on China's Propaganda". The Diplomat. 5 April 2022. With this "name and shame" tactic, the movement also became a tool to fight against extreme nationalism in China and the government's propaganda efforts to promote those messages.
  98. ^ Robert Weatherley; Qiang Zhang (30 August 2017). History and Nationalist Legitimacy in Contemporary China: A Double-Edged Sword. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-137-47947-1. ... ultranationalism of the Chinese public is exclusively attributable to the farreaching propaganda campaigns implemented by the CCP since the early 1990s which serve as constant reminders of the Century of Humiliation.
  99. ^ Minkenberg, Michael (2015). Transforming the Transformation?. Taylor & Francis. p. 126. the rightward shift of Fidesz is noticeable by their growing co-optation of ultranationalist narratives
  100. ^ Rosenfeld, Alvin (2021). Contending with Antisemitism in a Rapidly Changing Political Climate. Indiana University Press. p. 255. With its ultranationalist policy, Orban's Fidesz party managed to take over the positions of the far-right Jobbik party
  101. ^ deSouza, Peter Ronald (2006). India's Political Parties. SAGE. p. 19. The other major national party of today, the Bharatiya Janata Party, does not quite fit the religious fundamentalist, the ethnicity-based or the fascist/ultra nationalist categories although it shares, to a large degree, elements of all three
  102. ^ "Reformasi Reloaded? Implications of Indonesia's 2014 Elections". Center for Security Studies. 9 September 2014. Prabowo's coalition consisted of his own ultra nationalist Gerindra
  103. ^ Krieg, Andreas (2023). Subversion: The Strategic Weaponization of Narratives. Georgetown University Press. it has maintained connections with anti-EU, ultranationalist radical elements of ... Lega Nord
  104. ^ "Beautiful Harmony: Political Project Behind Japan's New Era Name – Analysis". eurasia review. 16 July 2019. The shifting dynamics around the new era name (gengō 元号) offers an opportunity to understand how the domestic politics of the LDP's project of ultranationalism is shaping a new Japan and a new form of nationalism.
  105. ^ Lunning, Frenchy, ed. (2013). Mechademia 4: War/Time. U of Minnesota Press. p. 291. ISBN 9781452942650. The overturning of the cab driver's 1998 sentiment in Akamatsu's 2007 piece had its political correlative in the victory of the ultranationalist wing of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) when Abe Shinzō became Japan's prime minister in ...
  106. ^ "Why Steve Bannon Admires Japan". The Diplomat. 22 June 2018. In Japan, populist and extreme right-wing nationalism has found a home within the political establishment.
  107. ^ Maki Kimura, ed. (2016). Unfolding the 'Comfort Women' Debates: Modernity, Violence, Women's Voices. Springer. ISBN 9781137392510. ... a gradual drift towards more nationalistic attitudes to education and politics in general in contemporary Japanese society may party be explained by the effect of ultranationalist politicians in the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP).
  108. ^ Masanori Nakamura, ed. (2016). The Japanese Monarchy: Ambassador Joseph Grew and the Making of the "Symbol Emperor System," 1931-1991. M.E. Sharpe. p. 1992. ISBN 9781563241093. On July 31, a group of ultranationalist LDP Diet men, alarmed by Nakasone's diplomacy of "submission to foreign pressure" on issues like textbook revision and the Yasukuni Shrine problem, formed the "Association of Those Concerned ...
  109. ^ Minkenberg, Michael (2023). Depleting Democracies. Manchester University Press. PiS adopted LPR's identity politics both regarding minorities and the ultranationalist interpretation of Polish history and continued its ideological trajectory
  110. ^ Baybars Hawks, Banu (2018). Non-state actors in conflicts. p. 43. In Poland, the ultranationalist Law and Justice Party (PiS) has significantly increased its vote share
  111. ^ a b Sabri Kiçmari, ed. (2022). History Continues: Three Models of the Continuation of History. Springer Nature. p. 59. ISBN 9789811984020. Putinism is not consistent as an ideology and political system. Public political attitudes have changed according to the circumstances. From a kind of cautious system to an open society, Putinism has moved significantly in the direction of the authoritarian system. His political party United Russia started as the conservative party of the former communists has moved towards ultranationalist and neo-imperialist ideology (Van Herpen 2013: 7). Van Harpen even qualifies Putinism as an unstable system of a slight variant of fascism-fascism lite. According to him, this system combines elements of proto-fascism, fascism and post-fascism, with a nucleus of ultra-nationalism, militarism and neo-imperialism (Van Herpen 2013: 8).
  112. ^ Chuck Stewart, ed. (2010). The Greenwood Encyclopedia of LGBT Issues Worldwide. Greenwood Press. p. 360. ISBN 9780313342356. In particular, Putin's efforts are attributed to the burgeoning growth of Russian ultranationalist sociopolitical organizations, such as United Russia (Yedinaya Rossiya) and Ours (Nashi, or Youth Movement - Ours!).
  113. ^ "Bosnia Serbs Oust Leader From Her Party". The New York Times. Reuters. 21 July 1997. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 19 June 2021.
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  116. ^ Kyriazi, Anna (April 2016). "Ultranationalist discourses of exclusion: a comparison between the Hungarian Jobbik and the Greek Golden Dawn". University of Milan.
  117. ^ "Migrants finding little sympathy in Hungary for their plight". AP News. 9 September 2015.
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  121. ^ Sakai, Robert (1966). Studies on Asia. University of Nebraska Press. p. 102. the ultranationalist faction within UMNO
  122. ^ Piacentini A., Make Macedonia Great Again! The New Face of Skopje and the Macedonians’ identity dilemma edited by Evinç Doğan in Reinventing Eastern Europe: Imaginaries, Identities and Transformations; Place and space series; Transnational Press London, 2019; ISBN 1910781878, p. 87.
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  125. ^ Stojarová, Věra; Emerson, Peter. "Political parties in Serbia" (PDF). bochsler.eu. Bochsler, Center for Comparative and International Studies, University of Zurich.
  126. ^ "Escaping Ethnocentrism: The Radical Right in the Middle East and Africa". Centre for Analysis of the Radical Right. 6 April 2018. Archived from the original on 12 July 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2023. Moreover, the rise of fascism in interwar Europe was an inspirational source for variety of ultranationalist movements and parties that emerged in the Middle East and Africa. Take the Syrian Social Nationalist Party (SSNP), founded in 1932 by Antun Sa'adih, who had a specific mission: to lead the Lebanese people to their destiny.
  127. ^ "Avigdor Lieberman: Moldova's Mr. Nice Guy". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 11 February 2009.
  128. ^ "Mainland to set up special economic zone to favour closer cooperation with Taiwan". AsiaNews. 5 May 2009. Retrieved 10 February 2023.
  129. ^ Xiaokun Song (2009). Between Civic and Ethnic: The Transformation of Taiwanese Nationalist Ideologies (1895-2000). VUBPRESS. p. 199. ISBN 978-90-5487-575-8. After the defeat in the 1996's presidential election, the ideological difference between the extreme nationalist and the moderate eventually led to the split of the DPP
  130. ^ Matthew D. McCubbins; Stephan Haggard (15 January 2001). Presidents, Parliaments, and Policy. Cambridge University Press. p. 202. ISBN 978-0-521-77485-7. The extreme nationalist stance of the radical wing of the DPP, which called for Taiwan's independence, also tended to alienate middle-class and business voters.
  131. ^ "'Our bodies are Turkish, our souls Islamic!' The rise of Turkey's ultra-nationalists". Middle East Eye. 21 July 2018.
  132. ^ "Turkish nationalists form new party challenging Erdogan". Deutsche Welle. 25 October 2017.
  133. ^ Arblaster, Paul (2018). A History of the Low Countries. p. 229. The ultranationalist Vlaams Blok
  134. ^ Katsikas, Stefanos (2011). Negotiating Diplomacy in the New Europe: Foreign Policy in Post-Communist Bulgaria. I.B. Tauris. p. 64.
  135. ^ a b "Ultra-nationalists, populists form 'Bulgarian Patriots' alliance for July elections". The Sofia Globe. 20 May 2021. Retrieved 17 June 2021. Ultra-nationalist parties VMRO and the National Front for the Salvation of Bulgaria, along with populists Volya, have agreed to stand together in Bulgaria's July 11, 2021 parliamentary elections under the name "Bulgarian Patriots", the parties announced on May 20.
  136. ^ "Vacuum at the top threatens to hinder Bulgaria's progress". Financial Times (FT). Retrieved 17 June 2021.
  137. ^ "New pro-European government to try to end political impasse". UniCredit. 26 June 2024. p. 21. Another ultra-nationalist, Eurosceptic, populist party, Grandeur (Velichie)
  138. ^ "Khmer Rouge leaders convicted of genocide in landmark court ruling". South China Morning Post. 16 November 2018. Retrieved 18 January 2023.
  139. ^ Ruzicic-Kessler, Karlo (2011). From the Industrial Revolution to World War II in East Central Europe. Lit. p. 194. the ultra-nationalist Ustase of Ante Pavelic
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  141. ^ Cengiz, Firat (2013). Turkey and the European Union. Taylor & Francis. p. 105. the ultranationalist Coalition for Republic-Republican Party of Czechoslovakia
  142. ^ Political Parties of Europe: Albania-Norway. Greenwood Press. 1983. p. 149.
  143. ^ Nissen, Henrik (1983). Scandinavia during the Second World War. Universitetsforlaget. p. 25. The fascist-inspired, ultranationalist IKL (the Patriotic People's Movement)
  144. ^ Zander, Patrick (2020). Fascism Through History: Culture, Ideology, and Daily Life. ABC-CLIO. p. 314. In Germany, the pressures of the depression helped the ultranationalist Nazi Party come to power by 1933
  145. ^ Payne, Stanley (1996). A History of Fascism, 1914–1945. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 163. The chief political party of the ultranationalist right was the DNVP
  146. ^ Germany's New Nazis. Philosophical Library. 1952. p. 17. The German Reich Party (conservative ultra-nationalist), which sent five members to the Federal Parliament in 1949
  147. ^ Nunez, Xose (2021). Sites of the Dictators. Taylor & Francis.
  148. ^ Tsatsanis, Emmanouil (2011), "Hellenism under siege: the national-populist logic of antiglobalization rhetoric in Greece", Journal of Political Ideologies, 16 (1): 11–31, doi:10.1080/13569317.2011.540939, S2CID 143633586, ...and far right-wing newspapers such as Alpha Ena, Eleytheros Kosmos, Eleytheri Ora and Stohos (the mouthpiece of ultra-nationalist group Chrysi Avgi).
  149. ^ Ivarsflaten, Elisabeth (2006), Reputational Shields: Why Most Anti-Immigrant Parties Failed in Western Europe, 1980–2005 (PDF), Nuffield College, University of Oxford, p. 15
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  153. ^ Nair, MB (2019). Journey through the Ages. Notion Press.
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  155. ^ Moses, A. Dirk (2021). The Problems of Genocide. Cambridge University Press. p. 367. the ultranationalist Hindu Mahasabha revivalist movement
  156. ^ Boroujerdi, Mehrzad; Rahimkhani, Kourosh (2018). Postrevolutionary Iran: A Political Handbook. Syracuse University Press. p. 344.
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  158. ^ Weinblum, Sharon (2015). Security and Defensive Democracy in Israel: A Critical Approach to Political Discourse. Routledge. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-317-58450-6.
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  163. ^ a b Khalfa, David (2009). Civil Organizations and Protest Movements in Israel. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 50. The ultranationalist Right is represented by little political parties that compose the "orange camp," dedicated to retaining all parts of the "remained Land of Israel" at any cost: Benny Elon's HaIchud Haleumi, Baruch Marzel's Jewish National Front, and Mikael Kleiner's Herut party.
  164. ^ Todd, Allan (2015). European States in the Interwar Years (1918-1939). Cambridge University Press. p. 19. Mussolini later formed the far-right ultra-nationalist Fascist Party
  165. ^ Moss, Bernhard (2004). Monetary Union in Crisis. Palgrave Macmillan UK. the ultranationalist traditions of the old MSI
  166. ^ Brandon, James R., ed. (2009). Kabuki's Forgotten War: 1931-1945. University of Hawaii Press. p. 113. ISBN 9780824832001. .2 All existing political parties "voluntarily" dissolved themselves, replaced by a single authorized political body, the ultranationalist Imperial Rule Assistance Association.
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  168. ^ "Malaysian PM hopeful, Mozambique needs EU help vs ISIS, Polish fur politics". GZERO. 23 September 2020. The leader of United Poland, the ultranationalist Zbigniew Ziobro
  169. ^ "Poland's High-Stakes Parliamentary Elections". Green European Journal. 15 February 2023. PiS' junior coalition partner is the ultra-nationalist and anti-EU party United Poland
  170. ^ Djassi Amado, Abel. "The União Nacional in Cabo Verde, 1937-1945: Local Politics in an Imperial Political Party". Portuguese Literary & Cultural Studies: 132. The União Nacional was initially founded as a "patriotic league," tasked with buttressing support for the military regime. Upon assuming power in 1932, Salazar reengineered the party to his ideological and political image to stand on the twin pillars of ultranationalism and corporativism
  171. ^ Villegas, Bernardo M. (1 February 1958). "The Philippines in 1986: Democratic Reconstruction in the Post-Marcos Era". Asian Survey. 27 (2): 194–205. doi:10.2307/2644614. ISSN 0004-4687. JSTOR 2644614. Finally, at the extreme right is the reorganized Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (KBL) under Nicanor Yniguez, which remains loyal to Marcos.
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  173. ^ Cercel, Cosmin (2015). Fascism and Criminal Law. Bloomsbury. p. 112. King Carol II appointed a government from one of the wings of the ultranationalist movement, namely the National Christian Party led by Octavian Goga
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  176. ^ Coleman, Edmond (2014). Sexuality and Gender in Postcommunist Eastern Europe and Russia. Taylor & Francis. p. 63. the ultranationalist Greater Romania Party
  177. ^ "Rwanda". CovertAction Quarterly (51–54): 12. 1994. The CDR is an ultranationalist Hutu party
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  187. ^ Genocide and Fascism. Taylor & Francis. 2008. p. 244. The SLS was an ultranationalist, socially conservative, strongly anticommunist and anti-Semitic (albeit in the rather conventional 'anti-Jewish/Bolshevik' form) Catholic political movement
  188. ^ "Not Even a Prosperous Slovakia Is Immune to Doubts About the E.U." New York Times. 17 December 2016.
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  193. ^ "Between Erdogan and Assad, Kurds remain reliable ally". Washington Kurdish Institute. 24 March 2020. Assad, like Saddam Hussein of Iraq, is a member of a wing of the Ba'ath Party, an ultra-nationalist, Arab supremacist party that calls for an Arab-led dictatorship
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  209. ^ Nilsson, Per-Erik (2017). Unveiling the French Republic: National Identity, Secularism, and Islam in Contemporary France. Brill. p. 70. Ultra-nationalist groups and parties like the Bloc identitaire
  210. ^ Kumar, M. (2020). Historical And Political Economy Of Education In India. Sankalp Publication. p. 323. RSS was itself an ultra-nationalist organization
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  212. ^ Fionna, Ulla, ed. (2015). Watching the Indonesian Elections 2014. ISEAS Publishing. p. 106. ISBN 9789814620833. Prabowo has accepted support from and declared his willingness to work with such organizations as the (notorious) radical Islamic group Front Pembela Islam (Defenders of Islam Front) and the ultra-nationalist Pemuda Pancasila
  213. ^ The German Side of the War in the Middle East 1939-1942. Stanford University. 1962. p. 41. the notorious "Golden Square", four young ultra-nationalist colonels
  214. ^ "Israeli human rights groups alarmed by Zionist video attack". Sydney Morning Herald. 1 January 2016. An ultra-nationalist Israeli group has published a video accusing the heads of four of Israel's leading human rights organisations of being foreign agents funded by Europe and supporting Palestinians "involved in terrorism". The widely-viewed 68-second video, made by radical Zionist group Im Tirtzu
  215. ^ "Jerusalem Jewish group on anti-Arab patrol". BBC. 9 February 2016. an ultra-nationalist Jewish group called Lehava has been organising patrols aimed at stopping Jewish Israelis from even talking to Arabs.
  216. ^ Pedahzur, Ami (2013). The Israeli Response to Jewish Extremism and Violence. Manchester University Press. Of the movements associated with ultranationalist right-wing notions, the Etzel and the Lehi were the most noteworthy in their use of violence and terrorism
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  218. ^ O'Connor, Eimear (2009). Sean Keating in Context: Responses to Culture and Politics in Post-civil War Ireland. Carysfort Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-1904505419.
  219. ^ "The dark side of Italian politics — Italy's swing to the right could see a more extremist agenda". CNBC. 1 March 2018.
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  221. ^ "Abe's cabinet reshuffle". East Asia Forum. 14 September 2019. Abe also rewarded right-wing politicians who are close to him — so-called 'ideological friends' who are being increasingly pushed to the forefront of his administration — such as LDP Executive Acting Secretary-General Koichi Hagiuda who was appointed Education Minister. As a member of the ultranationalist Nippon Kaigi (Japan Conference), which seeks to promote patriotic education, he can be considered 'reliable' as the government's policy leader on national education.
  222. ^ "Japanese minister becomes first in two years to visit Tokyo's controversial Yasukuni Shrine". South China Morning Post. 17 October 2019. Retrieved 5 June 2020. Eto is serving in his first cabinet position and is a member of the ultranationalist Nippon Kaigi organisation, whose aims are to revise the "national consciousness" surrounding the prosecution of Japan's war criminals and to change the nation's pacifist constitution implemented after the war. The group also promotes "patriotic education".
  223. ^ Kolmas, Michal, ed. (2019). National Identity and Japanese Revisionism. Routledge. ISBN 9781351334396. ... and foreign policy are rightwing revisionists organized in groups such as the ultranationalist Nippon Kaigi ...
  224. ^ Dessì, Ugo, ed. (2013). Japanese Religions and Globalization. Routledge. p. 146. ISBN 9780415811705.
  225. ^ "Japan combats rise in hate speech". Al Jazeera. 30 November 2015. Retrieved 5 June 2020. ... and many don't speak Korean or have ties to Korea. Even so, ultranationalist groups like Zaitokukai have singled them out and used Japan's very liberal protection of speech to harass, intimidate and silence Zainichi with noisy street protests and attacks online, often anonymously.
  226. ^ "Head of anti-foreigner group Zaitokukai to step down". Japan Times. 30 November 2015. Retrieved 5 June 2020. The longtime chairman of the ultranationalist group Zaitokukai has announced he will step down and even give up his membership in the group, saying the move will eventually bolster the organization's influence.
  227. ^ Zaman, Dina (23 June 2012). "Is there a need for more interfaith dialogue in Malaysia? Part 1". newmandala.org. Retrieved 26 April 2021. Perkasa (an all Malay ultranationalist group) ready to crusade against ungrateful Christians,
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